Author: Abdul Wahab

Al-Biruni

Al-BiruniAl-Biruni (Al-Beruni) is known for his works on multiple fields. Apart from mathematics, he knew about planets and stars, languages, geography, cultures, and history. Besides, he was a keen traveler, therefore, he visited India and worked on its languages, religion, and people. His time is known as the Golden Age of Islam. A famous Muslim scientist Avicenna (Ibn Sina) also lived in his time. Al-Biruni died at Gazni, in Afghanistan.

Biography – Life Span

Al-Biruni was born on 5th September 973 CE at Khwarazm in Uzbekistan, and his full name was “Abu Rayhan Muhammad Ibn Ahmed Al-Biruni“. The information on Al-Biruni’s early life is rare. Since he spent the first twenty-five years of his life in studies like logic, Islamic laws, philosophy, mathematics, and astronomy – the study of stars and planets. Because of his intelligence, rulers of his time would keep him in their company.

By the age of 22 in the year 995, he left his homeland and went to Bukhara. This city was then the center of knowledge in the world. He stayed there for around three years to get an education. He came in contact with Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and exchanged views with him on various subjects. Later, in 998 AD, he moved to Tabaristan in Iran where he wrote his first book, “The Remaining Traces of Past Centuries”.

At the age of forty-four in 1017 AD, Al-Biruni joined the court of Mahmud Ghaznavi, where he was appointed as an advisor on the study of planetary bodies. After serving for thirteen years, Mahmud Ghaznavi sent him to India in 1030 AD. Al-Biruni became aware of every walk of Indian life. He wrote a book on Indian history and culture known as “The History of India”.

As he traveled to Central and South Asia, he studied people’s customs and cultures. After his long research life, he died at the age of 77 years in the year 1050 in Ghazni, Afghanistan.

Contributions and Discoveries

Al-Biruni’s contribution have impacted most of the fields of knowledge. A good-sized book can be written just to describe his contributions. Some of his contributions are:

  • Astronomy:
    Al-Biruni discovered the mathematical methods to find the distance between the Sun, Earth, and Moon with the help of old astrolabes. This way he laid the foundation of knowing planetary distances. Furthermore, he very precisely measured the radius of the Earth to be 6,339.9 km which is 99.5% accurate.
  • Geography:
    Al-Biruni has written many books on geography and described locations of minerals, landmarks, people and culture, ancient nations, and the Earth’s shape. He founded the way to measure the distances of the Earth’s surface. Moreover, he precisely measured the coordinates and developed an accurate Earth Map of that time.
  • Mathematics:
    Al-Biruni has described new methods and refined the existing work on trigonometry in his treatise on trigonometry. Also, he worked on the solutions of quadratic and cubic equations.
  • History and Ethnography:
    Al-Biruni did extensive work in studying and writing the history of various nations. His most of work on history is based on India. Also, he laid the foundation for the study of multiple religions like Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, and Islam. Therefore, he learned languages like Hebrew, Greek, and Sanskrit.
  • Physics:
    Al-Biruni’s work on physics is very remarkable. He wrote abundantly on the properties of materials and mechanics. He described the concept of inertia and gravitational force. Also, he invented a device that helped him determine the specific gravity of many elements and compounds.
  • Medicine:
    Al-Biruni worked on the study of medicine and human health. He wrote a book on medicine in which he made a list of drugs and their properties with similar names.

Facts

  • He earned fame due to his research on India and wrote notes on its culture and people. Besides, he learned Sanskrit to understand their scriptures. Due to his contribution, he was given the title of ‘the Founder of Indology’.
  • Al-Biruni became a well-known mathematician and an astronomy expert (the study of planets and stars) in the Golden Age of Islam when his time’s other known figures, e.g. Avicenna (Ibn-Sina) lived around.
  • Due to his intelligence, Al-Biruni not only remained close to the rulers, but he even helped settle disputes between tribes and also worked for them on scientific and religious matters.
layers-of-earth

layers-of-earthThe Earth is a very dynamic terrestrial planet that is composed of complex structures and layers. The chemical composition and the layers of the Earth play a crucial role in giving it the geological and atmospheric properties that we have today. Furthermore, the core of the Earth that is at its center gives a powerful magnetic field that protects us from the Sun.

Layers of the Earth

internal-structure-of-earth
Internal structure of the Earth

Our Earth is not a solid piece of rock, like an iron ball. Instead, it is made up of several layers. Each layer has its own physical and chemical properties. Each layer plays an important in making the Earth look like as we know it today.

Our Earth is divided into four main layers, each layer having unique physical properties. These layers are Crust, Mantle, Outer core, and Inner core. Let’s dig into these layers and find out what they are made of.

The Crust

The crust is the topmost layer of the Earth on which you stand. All the mountains, jungles, and oceans you know are held on this layer. It is the thinnest layer among the four layers. This layer is 70 Km thick on the land, and 5 Km thick at some points on the ocean floor. The crust is not a one-piece solid layer, but it is divided into tectonic plates. Most of the geological activities, such as earthquakes, continental drifting, and volcanic activity, are witnessed here. The crust is mostly composed of silica, alumina, lime, magnesia, and iron oxide (rust).

Element-wise, the crust is 99% made up of below-mentioned elements.

The Mantle

The Mantle starts below the crust and is denser than the crust. It is 3,000 Km in thickness and is mostly made of silicate rocks rich in magnesium and iron. This layer is not perfectly solid. At some locations, the rock is completely melted, which is called magma. When this magma reaches near the crust, it erupts as Lava from the volcanoes.

In this layer, rocks are in constant motion of rising and sinking due to internal heat from the core. This rising and sinking of the molten rocks set up the convective currents. These convective currents also cause the tectonic plates to move and crash into each other causing earthquakes.

The Outer Core

This layer of the Earth is in the liquid state at a temperature of 5,000 °C. This layer is mostly made of iron and nickel. Both of these metals are in a liquid state due to intense heat. The outer core is always in constant motion due to convective currents. These convective currents are formed due to constant heating from the solid inner core and cooling at the mantle boundary.

The convective current in the outer core also creates a strong magnetic field around the Earth. This magnetic field protects our Earth from the Sun’s deadly wind. Without this layer, our Earth couldn’t have a magnetic field. Without this magnetic field, our Earth could never have an atmosphere, oceans, and life. The outer is not directly accessible for study due to its extreme depth. Scientists study the outer core by observing seismic activity and changes in the Earth’s magnetic field.

The Inner Core

The inner core is the hottest layer of the Earth, reaching a temperature of 7,000 °C; much hotter than the surface of the Sun. It is also composed of iron and nickel metal. The inner core is in solid form despite having such a high temperature. This is because the inner core is under tremendous pressure due to the weight of the other layers. Moreover, the inner solid core is the also main source of heat for other layers. The heat energy at the center of the Earth is the result of the radioactive decay of heavy elements and residual heat from the formation of the Earth.

Facts

  • Earth is the only planet, where life is found.
  • It is the third planet from the Sun.
  • It has only one moon, called Luna.
Abbas-Ibn-Firnas-Flying-With-The-Machine

Abbas-Ibn-Firnas-Flying-With-The-MachineAbbas Ibn Firnas was a very creative engineer and inventor who successfully constructed the first successful flying machine. His flying machine was a controlled one and he also demonstrated its flight, many centuries before designs of Leonardo Da Vinci. He is also famous for developing a glass lens that could be used to correct some vision problems. He had done many inventions and is so famous that, a crater on the moon has been named after his name.

Early Life

Abbas-Ibn-FirnasAbbas Ibn Firnas was born in Al-Andalusia (Now it is Ronda, Spain) in 810 and was a Muslim. His family belongs to the Berber tribe who are famous for conquering Spain in the leadership of Tariq Bin Ziyad. Spain of that time was under the control of Muslims and was a glorious nation due to the institution of science and technology.

Abbas got his education in the field of science, astrology, and medicines. Abbas was interested since his childhood in hacking the machinery and putting it back together to learn about its design and working. He was also interested in music and Arabic poetry and also learned them too. Abbas became interested in flying machine when he found that an engineer, Armen Firman, tried to fly on parachute but failed. It took 23 years before Abbas designed his first flying machine that could fly.

After designing and demonstrating his first flight, Abbas spent the rest of life in developing the design of the flying machine and principles of avionics. He also wrote many books on astronomy, avionics, physics, and engineering. His work also inspired a great engineer and philosopher, known as Leonardo Da Vinci.

Inventions of Abbas Ibn Firnas

Abbas Ibn Firnas developed and invented many things in his life due to his interest in science and technology. Some of his famous inventions are:

The Flying Machine

Abbas Ibn Firnas made his first flying machine in 875 CE in Cordoba, Spain. He constructed it on a frame of bamboo in two-winged suit. He covered the bamboo frame with lightweight silk cloth and feathers of eagles to mimic the birds. The wings of the flying machine were not static, but could be controlled during flight.

When the machine was ready to fly, Abbas Ibn Firnas gathered a large audience to demonstrate them the flight. When the audience gathered, he jumped-off from a large tower and achieved a successful flight for 10 minutes. However, the landing was not successful due to a flaw in his design. He didn’t designed any mechanism of landing with the machine smoothly. As a result, an accident happened to him during the landing which caused serious injuries. Later on, he mentioned in his book about a tail for the flying machine for landing successfully.

Transparent Glass

He experimented sand and quartz crystals to understand their properties. He also made very transparent glasses from them that became very famous as Andalusian glasses. He also made lenses from the transparent glass was become in correcting eyesight problems of many people.

Water Powered Clock

He designed a clock, known as Al-Maqata, for keeping the accurate time that was totally powered by the flow of water.

Facts

  • Abbas Ibn Firnas learned music and Arabic poetry from a famous Iraqi musician of that time, Ziryab.
  • After the first flight, Abbas proposed many designs of the flying machine but never flown them.
  • Due to interest in astrology, Abbas designed a mechanical planetarium to study the motion of planets.
silver-element

silver-elementsilver-symbol

  • Symbol: Ag
  • Atomic Number: 47
  • Atomic Weight: 107.8
  • Melting Point: 961 °C (1763 °F)
  • Boiling Point: 2162 °C (3924 °F)
  • Discovered by: Known since ancient time.

Silver is one of the precious metals found in the Earth’s crust. It is a very famous metal like gold and is known by every person living on the Earth. People have been using silver from thousands of years ago. They mostly used silver for making jewelry, currency coins, and artworks.

Silver is classified as a transitional element in the periodic table. It has 47 protons and 60 neutrons in its nucleus. Its symbol is ‘Ag’ which is derived from the Latin word “Argentum”.

Physical Properties

Silver element has many fascinating physical properties which make it one of the most important metals other than its use in jewelry.

  • Appearance:
    Silver is a white metallic colored, lustrous, and soft metal.
  • Thermal Conductivity:
    Silver has a good number of electrons in the outer shell of its atoms. The movement of these free electrons makes silver a very good thermal conductor.
  • Electrical Conductivity:
    It is a very good conductor of electricity; better than all metals in the periodic table.
  • Density:
    Silver is one of the densest elements which is 30% denser than iron.
  • Malleability and Ductility:
    It is a highly malleable and ductile metal due to its face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure.

Chemical Properties

Silver is one of the noble metals which are resistant to corrosion and oxidation in normal conditions. However, silver has various chemical properties which help in understanding its reactivity and stability.

  • Reactivity with Oxygen:
    Silver is inert to oxygen gas at room temperature. However, when the metal becomes hot, it readily reacts with oxygen in the presence of moisture. The reaction forms silver oxide (Ag2O) which coats the surface of silver. As a result, it stops the reaction from happening further.
  • Tarnishing:
    Tarnishing is the process of losing the lustrous surface and becoming dull-colored. Silver is inert to air at room temperature and doesn’t lose its luster. However, when certain sulfur compounds are present in the air, they react with silver. As a result, the silver gets tarnished due to the formation of silver sulfide (Ag2S) on its surface.
  • Reaction with Acids:
    Silver doesn’t react with diluted sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid at room temperature. But, nitric acid can react with silver and produce silver nitrate, water, and oxides of nitrogen.
  • Reaction with Alkalis:
    Silver is inert to most of the alkalis in normal conditions.

Uses

Silver has been used since ancient times, but it has countless uses in various industries. Some of the common uses of silver are:

  • Electronics:
    Silver is a very good conductor of electricity; it is used by electronic industries to build very efficient circuits, conductive coatings, and conductive paste.
  • Medicine:
    Silver has antimicrobial properties which makes it useful in developing antibacterial and antifungal medicines. Furthermore, it is by dentists to fill cavities of teeth.
  • Jewelry:
    Silver metal has been used for making jewelry since ancient times due to its eye-catching luster and whitish color. It is mostly used to make rings, necklaces, earrings, and bracelets. Furthermore, home decoration items and expensive crockery are also made with it.
  • Mirrors and Reflective Coatings:
    Metallic silver provides very efficient reflection to light’s visible spectrum and is extensively used in sharp and bright mirrors. Also, reflective coatings of silver are applied on glasses and optical devices.
  • Catalyst:
    Silver has very good catalytic properties and is used extensively in many industrial processes. It is also used in the production of formaldehyde and making ethylene oxide.

Where is it found?

argentite
Argentite

Silver is a rare element on the Earth as compared to other common metals. This rareness makes it a precious metal. It is not a very reactive element, so it is found in its pure form and also in some mineral forms, e.g. argentite. The major silver-producing countries are China, Peru, and Mexico.

Discovery

ancient-silver-coin
Ancient silver coins

Silver is one of the elements that has been known to mankind since ancient times. Archaeologists have found many artifacts from ruined cities that were 5000 years old. These artifacts are made of silver metal and its alloys. So it is not exactly known when humans first found silver or used it.

Fun Facts

  • Silver was once used for making coins. These coins were used as currency much like the nickel coins of today.
  • Silver was once the main ingredient for photography. Photographic plates were immersed in silver nitrate solution. (see the invention of the camera for more information)
  • Silver is a germicide, which means it can kill bacteria. But, it is not toxic for humans.
tyrannosaurus_T-Rex

tyrannosaurus_T-RexTyrannosaurus rex are pre-historic animals living around 65 million years ago. Thus, none of the early-day humans have watched them in reality. It is because early humans appeared around 20 million years ago. But thanks to paleontologists (scientists who study fossils of animals, plants, and other living things) who have through their intense research and with the help of computers, re-created their appearance. They have always been fascinating scientists and many movies have shown them in action.

Tyrannosaurus rex (T. Rex) derives its name from Latin and Greek Languages. Tyrannos stands for cruel, Saurus stands for a lizard, and rex means “king”. So, its apparent meaning would be “King of the cruel lizards”.

Appearance – What Do They Look Like?

tyrannosaurus-3D-modelT. rex are one of the largest dinosaurs ever lived on the Earth. They were around 40 feet long and 20 feet tall. The weight of an average-sized T. Rex was around 14 Metric tons. They had very muscular legs and a very strong tail. Their front limbs were very short each having two fingers. They possessed thick and heavy skull and the length of their jaw reached up to 4 feet. Their skin was scaly much like fishes in the ocean. They had serrated (saw-like) conical teeth. They had a very strong jaw with overwhelming strength.

Habitat

Around 65 million years ago, when T. rex lived on Earth, the entire landscape was very different from present-day landscapes. They mostly lived in the North American continent, but recent fossil discoveries suggest that their ancestors also lived in Asia.

Scientific studies support the view that they prefer humid and semi-tropical environments. Coastal swamps, water bodies, and open forests are included in their preferred habitats. Such environments also provided them with their prey to feed upon.

Diet

These huge-sized animals were apex predators of their time. In general, T. Rex hunted medium to large-sized herbivorous dinosaurs for their food. In North America, they had hadrosaurs and ceratopsians as their potential prey.  Its powerful jaws and large body helped in hunting various other animals of that time. They were very fast-moving animals and could eat a few hundred kilograms in a sitting. Furthermore, it is estimated that they could take around 200 kg of meat in a single bite.

T. rex also consumed the dead bodies of animals to feed themselves. In general, they didn’t consume animals of their kind. However, they only killed other T. rex in the fight for food snatching and taking over other member’s territory. The exact hunting strategy of T. rex is still under debate. However, most scientists agree that they used both ambush and active attacking strategies.

Behavior and Lifestyle

According to some studies, T. Rex were found to hunt in groups due to their extremely short front limbs (arms). Their front limbs were not sufficient to break the defense mechanisms of the prey. So, hunting in the groups made it easier for them to hunt and protect themselves. However, they also acted as solitary hunters. Sometimes they also involved in scavenger activities (eating dead animals). Usually, they led a solitary life until it becomes necessary for them to form groups.

Discovery

tyrannosaurus-skeletonBarnum Brown is considered as the discoverer of a partial skeleton of Tyrannosaurus Rex (T. Rex). He found the fossil in the eastern part of Wyoming State in the year 1900. Several other people also found various fossilized parts of T. Rex.

The fossil remains of T. Rex were also discovered in western parts of the US from Virginia to Texas and also in Alberta, Canada. However, some scientists think that T. Rex were originated from Asia, as supported by research about their skeletal features. As per one estimate they crossed over from Asia to the USA dating back to around 67 million years in the past. Some other scientists hold the view that their species was evolved in the present-day United States.

Facts

  • A fully grown male T. rex has 12 inches of large teeth with a whooping bite force of 5,800 kg. You can get the idea from adult human bite force which is 39 kg.
  • T. rex have been extinct from the Earth millions of years ago. However, birds are their closest relatives.
  • Fossilized remains of T. rex suggest that they had an average lifespan of 30 years.